Тематика курсовых работ по дисциплине «Лексикология» для специальности 45.05.01 «Перевод и переводоведение» 2016-2017 уч. год
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Тематика курсовых работ по дисциплине «Лексикология»
для специальности 45.05.01 «Перевод и переводоведение»
1. Английские аффиксы с негативным значением.
2. Английские фразеологизмы с компонентом цветообозначения.
3. Антропонимы в специальной терминологии.
4. Антропоцентризм в современном лексическом фонде английского языка.
5. Аффиксы с оценочной коннотацией в английском языке.
6. Вербализация базовых лингвокультурологических концептов английского этноса.
7. Вербализация концепта «learning» в английских пословицах и поговорках.
8. Идиоматическая фразеология в произведениях английской художественной литературы.
9. Имена собственные в английской паремии.
10. Компаративные фразеологические единицы.
11. Лексико-семантическое поле концепта «market».
12. Морфемная структура английских неологизмов.
13. Особенности политической терминологии английского языка.
14. Особенности синонимии в английской экономической и юридической терминологии.
15. Отражение культурных ценностей в лексике английского языка.
16. Полисеманты в английском языке и их актуализация в различных дискурсах.
18. Продуктивные типы словообразования существительных в английском языке.
19. Развитие коннотационного аспекта семантики в специальной терминологии.
20. Семантика эндоцентрических и экзоцентрических компаундов английского языка.
21. Структурные типы фразеологических единиц в современном английском языке.
22. Структурные особенности телескопических слов.
23. Таксономия аббревиатур в институциональном дискурсе.
24. Эвфемизмы как особый тип стилистических синонимов.
25. Особенности словосложения в системе словообразования английского языка.
26. Семантика омонимов английского языка.
27. Специфика конверсионных моделей в системе английского языка.
28. Деривационные и функциональные аффиксы английского языка.
29. Идиоматизация как средство отражения английской ЯКМ.
30. Фразеосемантическое поле «одежда» в английском языке.
31. Фразеосемантическое поле «погода» в английском языке.
32. Синтагматический потенциал прилагательных «thin» и «narrow» в английском языке.
33. Эвфемизмы в специальной терминологии.
34. Особенности метафорических терминов.
35. Метонимические модели, описывающие лексико-семантическое поле «человек» в английском языке.
36. Лексико-семантическое поле «политика» в английском языке.
37. Семантические группы современного английского сленга.
38. Антропоцентризм как основной принцип фразеологического корпуса английского языка.
39. Фразеологическая синонимия в современном английском языке.
40. Семантический потенциал глаголов с послелогами.
41. Словообразовательные модели неологизмов в современном английском языке.
42. Концепт «money» в английском сленге.
43. Гиперо-гипонимические отношения в составе лексико-семантического поля.
1. Специфика функционирования сокращений в публицистике (на материале немецкого языка).
2. Семантика и функционирование суффиксально-префиксальных существительных типа Gebirge, Gehäuse, Gepfeife. в немецком языке.
3. Семантика и функционирование сложных глаголов в немецком языке.
4. Функционирование сложных прилагательных в немецком языке и их семантика.
5. Лексико-семантическое поле цветообозначений в немецком языке.
6. Анализ фразеологических сочетаний с прилагательными-цветообозначениями в немецком языке.
7. Специфика структуры лексико-семантического поля со значением явлений природы в немецком языке.
8. Специфика лексико-семантической группы глаголов явлений природы (verba meteorologica) в немецком языке.
9. Функционирование заимствований в немецкой экономической терминологии.
10. Функционирование заимствований в современном немецком языке (на материале немецких газет).
11. Сопоставительный анализ терминов родства в немецком, английском и русском языках.
12. Сопоставительный анализ частиц в немецком и русском языках.
13. Славянские заимствования в современном немецком языке: комплексный анализ.
14. Функционирование наименований продуктов питания в немецком языке (на материале разговорной речи).
15. Этимологическая характеристика лексико-семантической группы наименований диких животных на материале немецкого и русского языков.
Темы курсовых работ по дисциплине «Лексикология»
Слово как единица языка в трудах современных ученых.
Понятие значения слова. Типы языковых значений.
Проблема классических заимствований в английском языке и их классификация.
Французские заимствования в английском языке и проблемы лексической ассимиляции.
Процесс аббревиации и его особенности в английском языке.
Особенности сокращения как способа словообразования в английском языке и их функционирование.
Особенности процесса номинации в английском языке и использование средств словообразования.
Конверсия как способ словообразования в английском языке.
Особенности словосложения как продуктивного способа словообразования в английском языке.
Синонимия и антонимия в английском языке.
Фразеологические единицы и идиомы в английском языке.
Аффиксы и полуаффиксы в терминологии и литературной норме.
Собственные и нарицательные имена в лексической системе языка.
Типы словарей. Проблемы составления и использования.
Понятие омонимии. Омонимия в языке и речи. Источники омонимии.
Полисемия как лингвистическое явление.
Этимологические основы лексикона.
Особенности словарного состава американского варианта английского языка.
Стилистически нейтральная лексика.
Семантическая структура слова.
Процессы номинации в английском языке. Основные способы.
Особенности лексики научного текста.
Стилистически окрашенная лексика. Типы, сфера употребления.
Лингвокультурологические концепты значения.
Словообразование. Функциональный аспект в системе словообразования. Способы словообразования в языке.
Словообразование. Лингвокультурологическая специфика словообразования.
Социальная и территориальная дифференциация словарного состава.
Литература для использования в курсовых работах
1.Атрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В„ Морозова Н.Н. Лексикология
английского языка, М,, 1999.
2. Бабич Н.П. Лексикология английского языка. М., 2006
2. Ginsburg R. S., Khidekel S. S., Knyazeva G. Y., Sankin F. F., A Course in
Modern English Lexicology, 2 ed. M., 1979
3. Харитончик З.А. Лексикология английского языка. Минск, 1992.
4. Arnold I. V. The English Word. L., 1986
5. Дубинец Э.М. Modern English Lexicology. М. 2002
6. Минаева Л.В. Лексикология и лексикография английского языка М. 2007-12-10
7. Зыкова И.В. Практический курс английской лексикологии. Москва.2007
8.Заботкина В.И, Новая лексика в английском языке. М., 1987.
9. Кубрякова Е.С. Что такое словообразование? М., 1965.
10.Кубрякова Е.С. Части речи с когнитивной точки зрения. М., 1997.
11.Никитин М. В. Основы лингвистической теории значения. М., 1988.
12.Ступин Л.П, Словари современного английского языка. Л., 1984.
13.Смирницкий Л.П. Лексикология английского языка. М., 1998.
14.Швейцер А.Д. Литературный язык в США и в Англии. М., 1986.
15.Кунин А.В, Курс фразеологии современного английского языка. М., 1996.
16.Кубрякова Е.С. Типы языковых значений. Семантика производного слова. М., 1981.
17.Кубрякова Е.С. Номинативный аспект речевой деятельности. М., 1986.
18.Апресян Ю.Д. Избранные труды, том I. Лексическая семантика. М.: Школа “Языки
русской культуры”, 1995.
19.Апресян Ю.Д. Избранные труды, том II. Интегральное описание языка и системная
лексикография. М.: Школа “Языки русской культуры”, 1995.
20.Ахманова О.С. Словарь лингвистических терминов. М.: Эдиториал УРСС, 2004.
21.Дубичинский В.В. Теоретическая и практическая лексикография. Вена-Харьков, 1998.
22.Елисеева В.В. Лексикология английского языка. СПб.: СПбГУ, 2003.
23.Кобозева И.М. Лингвистическая семантика. М.: Эдиториал УРСС, 2000.
24.Кронгауз М.А. Семантика. М.: РГГУ, 2001.
25.Кульганова Л.В. Учебно-практические материалы по дисциплине «Лексикология английского языка» (для студентов лингвистических университетов). Иркутск: ИГЛУ, 2004.
26.Манерко Л.А. Этимология английского языка через историю народа Великобритании. Рязань: РГПУ, 1998.
27.Carter R., McCarthy M. Vocabulary and Language Teaching. London: Longman, 1998.
28.Leech J. Semantics. Penguin Books, 1981.
29.Quirk R., Stein G. English in Use. UK Longman, 1990.
30.Pyles Th., Alges J. The Origin and Development of the English Language. San Diego, 1992.
31.Holy, Miachael. Patterns of Lexis. OUP, 1991
32.Palmer, F. R. Semantics. A new Outline. M., 1982
33.Манакин В.Н. Сопоставительная лексикологияКиев.2004
34.Мильруд Р.П. Введение в лингвистику.Москва.2005.
35.Маковский М.М. Современный английский сленг.Москва.2005.
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Дубенец Э.М. «Курс лекций и планы семинарских занятий по лексикологии английского языка»
Здесь вы можете бесплатно скачать книгу: Дубенец Э.М. «Курс лекций и планы семинарских занятий по лексикологии английского языка».
Описание: Доцент Московского Государственного Университета создал курс лекций по лексилогии на английском языке.
This course of lexicology which forms a part of the curriculum for the English sections of linguistic departments of teacher-training colleges is intended for students of the third year of the day department. It includes 15 lectures and 12 seminars which cover the main themes of Modern English lexicology: word-building, semantic changes, phraseology, borrowings, semasiology, neology, lexicography. The material for seminars includes topics to be discussed, test questions and lexical units to be analysed. Lexical units for the analysis were chosen mainly among neologisms. There is also a brief list of recommended literature.
The aim of the course is to teach students to be word-conscious, to be able to guess the meaning of words they come across from the meanings of morphemes, to be able to recognise the origin of this or that lexical unit.
Содержание:
LANGUAGE UNITS
WORDBUILDING
Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation.
AFFIXATION
Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used : prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over- (overhead) ( cf over the table ).
The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles :
2. Origin of prefixes:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under- etc.
b) Romanic, such as : in-, de-, ex-, re- etc.
c) Greek, such as : sym-, hyper- etc.
COMPOSITION
Composition is the way of wordbuilding when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon : a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphonated spelling, c) semantic unity, d) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are charachteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood-vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow-white,sky-blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphonated spelling.
Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, iinsofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that there has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, pinguin suit etc.
The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain-drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e. g., airbus, to bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc.
English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes. «Chatter-boxes» is a predicative in the sentence and only the second component changes grammatically.
There are two characteristic features of English compounds:
a) Both components in an English compound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. «a green-house» and «a green house». Whereas for example in Russian compounds the stems are bound morphemes, as a rule.
b) English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off-the-record, up-and-doing etc. The two-stem pattern distinguishes English compounds from German ones.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS
1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:
a) nouns, such as : baby-moon, globe-trotter,
b) adjectives, such as : free-for-all, power-happy,
c) verbs, such as : to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck,
d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst,
e) prepositions, such as: into, within,
f) numerals, such as : fifty-five.
2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are divided into:
a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop,
b) morphological where components are joined by a linking element : vowels «o» or «i» or the consonant «s», e.g. <«astrospace», «handicraft», «sportsman»),
c) syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all., do-or-die.
CONVERSION
SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ADJECTIVES
ABBREVIATION
Abbreviations of words
Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form the full form of the word. In such cases as »fantasy» and «fancy», «fence» and «defence» we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as «laboratory» and «lab», we have different styles.
SOUND IMITATION
It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation
a) sounds produced by human beings, such as : to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle etc.
b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as : to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter etc.
c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as : to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc.
The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children) etc.
SEMANTIC CHANGES
The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of different times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change.
The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic, e.g. the change of the lexical meaning of the noun «pen» was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily « pen» comes back to the Latin word «penna» (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was called « a pen».
On the other hand causes can be linguistic, e.g. the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may specialize in its meaning, e.g. the noun «tide» in Old English was polisemantic and denoted «time», «season», «hour». When the French words «time», «season», «hour» were borrowed into English they ousted the word «tide» in these meanings. It was specialized and now means «regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon». The meaning of a word can also change due to ellipsis, e.g. the word-group «a train of carriages» had the meaning of «a row of carriages», later on «of carriages» was dropped and the noun «train» changed its meaning, it is used now in the function and with the meaning of the whole word-group.
Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete classification was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul in his work «Prinzipien des Sprachgeschichte». It is based on the logical principle. He distiguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual ( specialization and generalization), two momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litote).
SPECIALIZATION
GENERALIZATION
METAPHOR
METONYMY
ELEVATION
It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.g. «knight» originally meant «a boy», then «a young servant», then «a military servant», then «a noble man». Now it is a title of nobility given to outstanding people; «marshal» originally meant «a horse man» now it is the highest military rank etc.
DEGRADATION
It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time. It is usually connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. «villain» originally meant «working on a villa» now it means «a scoundrel».
HYPERBOLE
It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration,
e.g. «to hate»(doing something), (not to see somebody) «for ages».
Hyperbole is often used to form phraseological units, e.g. «to make a mountain out of a molehill», «to split hairs» etc.
LITOTE
It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker expresses affirmative with the negative or vica versa, e.g. not bad, no coward etc.
PHRASEOLOGY
The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units. They are compiled in special dictionaries. The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms». We can mention such dictionaries as: L.Smith «Words and Idioms», V.Collins «A Book of English Idioms» etc. In these dictionaries we can find words, peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic), side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged, as a rule, into different semantic groups.
Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.
WAYS OF FORMING PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
SYNTACTICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
BORROWINGS
CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE BORROWED ASPECT
CLASSIFICATION OF BORROWINGS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF ASSIMILATION
Spanish borrowings.
Spanish borrowings came into English mainly through its American variant. There are the following semantic groups of them:
a) trade terms: cargo, embargo;
b) names of dances and musical instruments: tango, rumba, habanera, guitar;
c) names of vegetables and fruit: tomato, potato, tobbaco, cocoa, banana, ananas, apricot etc.
GERMANIC BORROWINGS
Holland borrowings.
Holland and England have constant interrelations for many centuries and more than 2000 Holland borrowings were borrowed into English. Most of them are nautical terms and were mainly borrowed in the 14-th century, such as: freight, skipper, pump, keel, dock, reef, deck, leak and many others.
Besides two main groups of borrowings (Romanic and Germanic) there are also borrowings from a lot of other languages. We shall speak about Russian borrowings, borrowings from the language which belongs to Slavoninc languages.
Russian borrowings.
There were constant contacts between England and Russia and they borrowed words from one language into the other. Among early Russian borrowings there are mainly words connected with trade relations, such as: rouble, copeck, pood, sterlet, vodka, sable, and also words relating to nature, such as: taiga, tundra, steppe etc.
There is also a large group of Russian borrowings which came into English through Rushian literature of the 19-th century, such as : Narodnik, moujik, duma, zemstvo. volost, ukase etc, and also words which were formed in Russian with Latin roots, such as: nihilist, intelligenzia, Decembrist etc.
After the Great October Revolution many new words appeared in Russian connected with the new political system, new culture, and many of them were borrowed into English, such as: collectivization. udarnik, Komsomol etc and also translation loans, such as: shock worker, collective farm, five-year plan etc.
One more group of Russian borrowings is connected with perestroika, such as: glasnost, nomenklatura, apparatchik etc.
ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS
Sometimes a word is borrowed twice from the same language. As the result, we have two different words with different spellings and meanings but historically they come back to one and the same word. Such words are called etymological doublets. In English there are some groups of them:
Latino-French doublets.
Latin English from Latin English from French
uncia inch ounce
moneta mint money
camera camera chamber
SEMASIOLOGY
The branch of lexicology which deals with the meaning is called semasiology.
POLYSEMY
The word «polysemy» means «plurality of meanings» it exists only in the language, not in speech. A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic.
Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to the proximity of notions which they express. E.g. the word «blanket» has the following meanings: a woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a horse warm, a covering of any kind /a blanket of snow/, covering all or most cases /used attributively/, e.g. we can say «a blanket insurance policy».
There are some words in the language which are monosemantic, such as most terms, /synonym, molecule, bronchites/, some pronouns /this, my, both/, numerals.
There are two processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation and concatination. In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays. Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primmary meaning. E.g. in the word «face» the primary meaning denotes «the front part of the human head» Connected with the front position the meanings: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part of a playing card were formed. Connected with the word «face» itself the meanings : expression of the face, outward appearance are formed.
In cases of concatination secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain. In such cases it is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one. E.g. in the word «crust» the primary meaning «hard outer part of bread» developed a secondary meaning «hard part of anything /a pie, a cake/», then the meaning »harder layer over soft snow» was developed, then «a sullen gloomy person», then «impudence» were developed. Here the last meanings have nothing to do with the primary ones. In such cases homonyms appear in the language. It is called the split of polysemy.
In most cases in the semantic development of a word both ways of semantic development are combined.
HOMONYMS
Homonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling.
Homonyms can appear in the language not only as the result of the split of polysemy, but also as the result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect, e.g. «care» from «caru» and «care» from «carian». They can be also formed by means of conversion, e.g. «to slim» from «slim», «to water» from «water». They can be formed with the help of the same suffix from the same stem, e.g. «reader»/ a person who reads and a book for reading/.
Homonyms can also appear in the language accidentally, when two words coincide in their development, e.g. two native words can coincide in their outer aspects: «to bear» from «beran»/to carry/ and «bear» from «bera»/an animal/. A native word and a borrowing can coincide in their outer aspects, e.g. «fair» from Latin «feria» and «fair « from native «fager» /blond/. Two borrowings can coincide e.g. «base» from the French «base» /Latin basis/ and «base» /low/ from the Latin «bas» /Italian «basso»/.
Homonyms can develop through shortening of different words, e.g. «cab» from «cabriolet», «cabbage», «cabin».
SYNONYMS
ANTONYMS
LOCAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH ON THE BRITISH ISLES
BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
Some names of useful objects:
BE AE BE AE
biro ballpoint rubber eraser
tap faucet torch flashlight
parcel package elastic rubber band
carrier bag shopping bag reel of cotton spool of thread
Some words connected with food:
BE AE BE AE
tin can sweets candy
sweet biscuit cookie dry biscuit crackers
sweet dessert chips french fries
minced meat ground beef
Some words denoting personal items:
BE AE BE AE
fringe bangs/of hair/ turn- ups cuffs
tights pantyhose mackintosh raincoat
ladder run/in a stocking/ braces suspenders
poloneck turtleneck waistcoat vest
Some words denoting people:
BE AE BE AE
barrister, lawyer, staff /university/ faculty
post-graduate graduate chap, fellow guy
caretaker janitor constable patrolman
shopassistant shopperson bobby cop
If we speak about cars there are also some differences:
BE AE BE AE
boot trunk bumpers fenders
a car, an auto, to hire a car to rent a car
Differences in the organization of education lead to different terms. BE «public school» is in fact a private school. It is a fee-paying school not controlled by the local education authorities. AE «public school» is a free local authority school. BE «elementary school» is AE «grade school» BE «secondary school» is AE «high school». In BE « a pupil leaves a secondary school», in AE «a student graduates from a high school» In BE you can graduate from a university or college of education, graduating entails getting a degree.
A British university student takes three years known as the first, the second and the third years. An American student takes four years, known as freshman, sophomore, junior and senior years. While studying a British student takes a main and subsidiary subjects. An American student majors in a subject and also takes electives. A British student specializes in one main subject, with one subsidiary to get his honours degree. An American student earns credits for successfully completing a number of courses in studies, and has to reach the total of 36 credits to receive a degree.
Differences of spelling.
The reform in the English spelling for American English was introduced by the famous American lexicographer Noah Webster who published his first dictionary in 1806. Those of his proposals which were adopted in the English spelling are as follows:
a) the delition of the letter «u» in words ending in «our», e.g. honor, favor;
b) the delition of the second consonant in words with double consonants, e.g. traveler, wagon,
c) the replacement of «re» by «er» in words of French origin, e.g. theater, center,
d) the delition of unpronounced endings in words of Romanic origin, e.g.
catalog, program,
e) the replacement of «ce» by «se» in words of Romanic origin, e.g. defense, offense,
d) delition of unpronounced endings in native words, e.g. tho, thro.
Differences in pronunciation
In American English we have r-coloured fully articulated vowels, in the combinations: ar, er, ir, or, ur, our etc. In BE the sound / / corresponds to the AE /^/, e.g. «not». In BE before fricatives and combinations with fricatives «a» is pronounced as /a:/, in AE it is pronounced / / e.g. class, dance, answer, fast etc.
There are some differences in the position of the stress:
BE AE BE AE
add`ress adress la`boratory `laboratory
re`cess `recess re`search `research
in`quiry `inquiry ex`cess `excess
Some words in BE and AE have different pronunciation, e.g.
BE AE BE AE
/`fju:tail/ /`fju:t l/ /`dousail / /dos l/
/kla:k/ /kl rk/ /`fig / /figyer/
/ `le3 / / li:3 r/ /lef`ten nt/ /lu:tenant/
/ nai / /ni: r/ /shedju:l/ /skedyu:l/
But these differences in pronunciation do not prevent Englishmen and American from communicating with each other easily and cannot serve as a proof that British and American are different languages.
Words can be classified according to the period of their life in the language. The number of new words in a language is always larger than the number of words which come out of active usage. Accordingly we can have archaisms, that is words which have come out of active usage, and neologisms, that is words which have recently appeared in the language.
ARCHAISMS
Archaisms are words which are no longer used in everyday speech, which have been ousted by their synonyms. Archaisms remain in the language, but they are used as stylistic devices to express solemnity.
Most of these words are lexical archaisms and they are stylistic synonyms of words which ousted them from the neutral style. Some of them are: steed /horse/, slay /kill/, behold /see/, perchance /perhaps/, woe /sorrow/ etc.
Sometimes a lexical archaism begins a new life, getting a new meaning, then the old meaning becomes a semantic archaism, e.g. «fair» in the meaning «beautiful» is a semantic archaism, but in the meaning «blond» it belongs to the neutral style.
Sometimes the root of the word remains and the affix is changed, then the old affix is considered to be a morphemic archaism, e.g. «beautious» /»ous» was substituted by «ful»/, «bepaint» / «be» was dropped/, «darksome» /»some» was dropped/, «oft» / «en» was added/. etc.
NEOLOGISMS
Changes in pronunciation.
In Modern British English there is a tendency to change pronunciation of some sounds and combinations of sounds due to the influence of American English and some other factors. These changes are most noticeable in the speech of teachers and students of the universities in the Southern part of England /Oxford, Cambridge, London/.
There are the following changes in pronouncing vowels:
a) shortening of long vowels, especially at the end of the word and before voiceless consonants, e.g. see, keep;
b) lengthening of short vowels before voiced consonants, e.g. big, good, come, jam etc. In such adjectives which end in /d/ lengthening of the vowel is observed all over England, e.g. bad, sad, glad, mad etc.
c) drawling of stressed syllables and clipping of unstressed syllables.
d) In unstressed syllables / / is pronounced instead of / i /, e.g. /b `ko:z/, /`evid ns/ etc.
e) In the words consisting of three or more syllables there is a tendency to have two main stresses,e.g. /`nes `s ri/, /`int `restin/.
f) The diphthong /ou/ is pronounced / u/,e.g. home /h um/, go /g u/.
g) the diphthong / u / is pronounced /o:/, e.g. sure /sho:/.
Vowels can also change under the influence of consonants:
a) after fricatives and consonants /n/ and /m/ /ju:/ is pronounced as /u:/, e.g. resume, music, news, enthusiasm.
LEXICOGRAPHY
philological society adopted the decision to compile the dictionary and the work started. More than a thousand people took part in collecting examples, and 26 years later in 1884 the first volume was published. It contained words beginning with «A» and «B». The last volume was published in 1928 that is 70 years after the decision to compile it was adopted. The dictionary was called NED and contained 12 volumes.
In 1933 the dictionary was republished under the title «The Oxford English Dictionary», because the work on the dictionary was conducted in Oxford. This dictionary contained 13 volumes. As the dictionary was very large and terribly expensive scientists continued their work and compiled shorter editions of the dictionary: «A Shorter Oxford Dictionary» consisting of two volumes. It had the same number of entries, but far less examples from literature. They also compiled «A Concise Oxford Dictionary» consisting of one volume and including only modern words and no examples from literature.
The American lexicography began to develop much later, at the end of the 18-th century. The most famous American English dictionary was compiled by Noah Webster. He was an active stateman and public man and he published his first dictionary in 1806. He went on with his work on the dictionary and in 1828 he published a two-volume dictionary. He tried to simplify the English spelling and transcription. He introduced the alphabetical system of transcription where he used letters and combinations of letters instead of transcription signs. He denoted vowels in closed syllables by the corresponding vowels, e.g. / a/, /e/, / i/, / o/, /u/. He denoted vowels in the open syllable by the same letters, but with a dash above them,e.g. / a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. He denoted vowels in the position before /r/ as the same letters with two dots above them, e.g. / a/, /o/ and by the l etter «e» with two dots above it for the combinations «er», «ir», «ur» because they are pronounced identically. The same tendency is preserved for other sounds : /u:/ is denoted by /oo/, /y/ is used for the sound /j/ etc.
Language units.
The smallest language unit.
The function of a root morpheme.
The main function of suffixes.
The secondary function of suffixes.
The main function of prefixes.
The secondary function of prefixes.
Splinters and their formation in English.
The difference between affixes and splinters.
Structural types of words in English.
The stem of a word and the difference beween a simple word, a stem and a root.
The difference between a block compound and a nominal benomial.
The difference between a word and a phraseological unit.
The similarity between a word and a phraseological unit.
Analyze the following lexical units according to their structure. Point out the function of morphemes. Speak about bound morphemes and free morphemes. Point out allomorphs in analyzed words:
accompany unsystematic forget-me-not
computerise expressionless reservation
de-restrict superprivileged moisture
lengthen clannish pleasure
beautify workaholic reconstruction
beflower inwardly counterculture
specialise moneywise three-cornered
round table Green Berets to sandwich in
Affixation.
Classification of suffixes according to the part of speech they form.
Classification of suffixes according to the stem they are added to.
Classification of suffixes according to their meaning.
Classification of suffixes according to their productivity.
Classification of suffixes according to their origin.
Classification of prefixes according to their meaning.
Classification of prefixes according to their origin.
Classification of prefixes according to their productivity.
Analyze the following derived words, point out suffixes and prefixes and classify them from different points of view:
to embed nourishment unsystematic
to encourage inwardly to accompany
translatorese dispensable clannishness
to de-restrict workaholic jet-wise
reconstruction to overreach thouroughly
afterthought foundation childishness
transgressor to re-write completenik
gangsterdom pleasure concentration
refusenik counter-culture brinkmanship
allusion self-criticism to computerise
slimster reservation translation
Compound words.
Characteristic features of compound words in different languages.
Characteristic features of English compounds.
Classification of compound words according to their structure.
Classification of compound words according to the joining element.
Classification of compound words according to the parts of speech.
Classification of compound words according to the semantic relations between the components.
Ways of forming compound words.
Analyze the following compound words:
note-book speedometer son-in-law
to job-hop brain-gain video-corder
fair-haired forget-me-not Anglo-Russian
teach-in back-grounder biblio-klept
theatre-goer well-dressed bio-engineer
to book-hunt mini-term to baby-sit
blood-thirsty good-for-nothing throw-away
do-gooder skin-head kleptomania
sportsman para-trooper airbus
bus-napper cease-fire three-cornered
tip-top brain-drain bread-and-butter
Compare the strucure of the following words:
demagougery tablewards heliport
tobbacoless money-wise non-formal
booketeria go-go motel
counter-clockwise to frontpage productivity
giver-away newly-created nobody
Conversion as a way of wordbuilding.
Different points of view on the nature of conversion.
Semantic groups of verbs which can be converted from nouns.
The meanings of verbs converted from adjectives.
Semantic groups of nouns which can be converted from verbs.
Substantivised adjectives.
Characteristic features of combinations of the type «stone wall».
Semantic groups of combinations of this type.
Analyze the following lexical units:
Shortenings and abbreviations.
Lexical and graphical abbreviations,the main differences between them.
Types of graphical abbreviations.
Types of initias, peculiarities of their pronunciation.
Lexical shortenings of words, their reference to styles.
Compound-shortened words, their structural types.
Analyze the following lexical units:
Seminar 6.
Phraseological units.
Ways of forming phraseological units.
Semantic classification of phraseological units.
Structural classification of phraseological units.
Syntactical classification of phraseological units.
Analyze the following phraseological units according to their meaning, structure, syntactical function and the way they are formed:
When pigs fly /never/. To leap into marriage.
To be a whipping boy. To be behind scenes.
Girl Friday /a man’s assistant/. Fire in the belly.
Man Friday /a true friend/. A dear John.
To be on the beam. Game, set and match.
Country and western. To jump out of one’s skin.
As smart as paint. It’s my cup of tea.
Robin Crusoe and Friday / seats at a theatre divided by a passage/. Fortune favours fools. To be in the dog house.
The green power. Green Berets.
Culture vulture. To get off one’s back.
To make headlines. On the nose.
With a bump. To have a short fuse.
To vote with one’s feet. Nuts and bolts.
Blackboard jungle. The sky is the limit.
Cash and carry. To nose out.
To sandwich in. Berlin wall.
A close mouth catches no flies. To speak BBB.
To sound like a computer. As dull as lead.
Last but not least. On the stroke of.
Students choose ten phraseological units from Koonin’s dictionary of phraseological units and a unilingual dictionary of idioms and analyze them in the written form. During the seminar they analyze their phrasological units chosen from dictionaries at the blackboard.
Classification of borrowings according to the language from which they were borrowed:
Latin borrowings.
French borrowings.
Italian borrowings.
Scandinavian borrowings.
German borrowings.
Russian borrowings.
Classification of borrowings according to the borrowed aspect: phonetic borrowings, semantic borrowings, translation loans, morphemeic borrowings, hybrids.
Classification of borrowings according to the degree of assimilation: fully assimilated borrowings, partly assimilated borrowings, barbarisms. Borrowings partly assimilated semantically, grammatically, phonetically and graphically.
Analyze the following borrowings:
school represent sky-blue
degree rhythm immobility
chandelier the Zoo vase
mot /mou/ hybrid bouffant
illuminate keenly communicative
possessiveness to reproach command
moustache gifted boutique
skipper cache-pot well-scrubbed
nouveau riche emphatic mysteriously
dactyl Nicholas group
to possess chenile psychological
garage guarantee contempt
trait/trei/ triumph stomach
sympathy cynical Philipp
schoolboy Christianity paralyzed
system hotel cyclic
diphtheria kerchief dark-skinned.
Word and notion.
Lexical meaning and notion.
Polysemy.
Homonyms.
Synonyms.
Antonyms.
Classifications of homonyms when applied to analysis.
Classifications of antonyms when applied to analysis.
Analyze the following lexical units applying the above mentioned classifications of homonyms and antonyms:
Seminar 10.
Neology.
Neology «blowup» and the work of R.Berchfield.
Semantic neologisms, transnomination and proper neologisms.
Semantic groups of neologisms connected with computerization.
Social stratification and neologisms.
Semantic groups of neologisms referring to everyday life.
Phonological neologisms and borrowings as strong neologisms.
Morphological and syntactical neologisms.
Changes in pronunciation.
Analyze the following neologisms from the point of view of neology theory and also from the point of view of their morphemic structure and the way they were formed :
to clip-clip AIDS coup
sound barrier to Vice-Preside boutique
to re-familiarize tourmobile sevenish
to de-dramatize non-formals to baby-sit
to scrimp and save fireside chat hide-away
coin-in-the-slot cashless society memo
We shall overcome. to dish old wine in new bottles
to-ing and fro-ing multinationals the Commons
hyperacidity religiosity D-Day
face-to-face/tuition/ femme-fatalish to the wingtips
to river singer-songwriter beatnik
communication gap laundered money cheeseburger
Don’t change horses. to put a freeze on micro-surgical
SA out-doorsy medicare
Cold War self-exile public-schooly
brain-drainer movers and shakers Euroyuppie
Lexicography.
Analysis of the control paper.
Historical development of British lexicography.
Historical development of American lexicography.
Classification of dictionaries.
Student reports on dictionaries they use in their work.
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